ALRItkwRom101RepubDisint.html
V.  Republican Disintegration
http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/romanrev/
http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_endoftherepublic.htm
http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/CLASS_366/Syllabus.html
Ancient History Sourcebook -- Roman Revolution:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook09.html#Civil%20Wars%20and%20Revolution
Cast of Characters
The Gracchi and their Mother http://heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/gracchi/

Plutarch lives of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus

http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/tiberius.html
http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/gracchus.html Mackay lectures on the brothers http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/CLASS_366/Ti.Gracchus.1.html
http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/CLASS_366/C.Gracchus.1.html Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/cornelia/ Optimates and Populares http://www.uoregon.edu/~msnic/RepRomeW01/army.htm
http://www.uoregon.edu/~msnic/RepRomeW01/army.htm
The "optimates" and the "populares"

1. Some vocabulary:

factio: a clique of leading men who had common designs for their own advantage in the state. partes: the divisions in the elite. The two groups are called the optimates and the populares. 2. These are not political parties in the modern American sense nor do the terms describe an alignment of the senate vs. the people. They have no necessary underlying ideological basis. 3.The differences between the two partes: 1.Not an alignment of senate against people, but a struggle between two groups of men of noble [equestrian]and
senatorial rank. 2.Essentially the difference lay in the instrument of legal power.
  The optimates controlled the senate and the higher magistracies and pursued their goals by traditional means (senatus
consulta and decrees). Self-styled "best men". The populares, in contrast, may have preferred the prestige of being optimates, but, frustrated in their bid for advancement in
the traditional manner, turned instead to the people and
obtained commands and powers by laws/leges without the
approval of the senate. 4.The propaganda: 1.To some, the optimates were the defenders of the constitution, of law and order, and of tradition. They were boni (="good
men"). To others they were ruthless reactionaries willing to
defend property, privilege and the status quo at any cost. 2.To some, the populares were selfless reformers who understood the new demands on the state; to others they were
unscrupulous politicians with no sense of the traditional
constitution that had made Rome great: they were interested
simply in personal power; were potential tyrants/monarchs. 3.Each side claimed to be "liberating the state from tyranny". 5.The Issues: 1.The prize was not simply the annual magistracy (especially the consulate) but the opportunities that offices provide to
exploit the wealth of a might empire. 2.Programs a.state subsidy of grain and bread for urban mob (only comprehensible if the mob controlled the assemblies), b.agrarian laws: land for the poor,
c.extension of citizenship: provides new clientele but endangers an older one, d.defense of private property (often conflicts with b.),
e.sound government (especially toward subjects of Rome). Marius, Sulla, and Cinna Marius About.com links to Marius:
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/marius/index.htm?terms=marius
Plutarch on Marius:
http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/c_marius.html Sulla Plutarch on Sylla (Sulla):
http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/sylla.html
About.com links to Sulla:
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/sulla/ Cinna From a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia, the most prominent member of which was this Lucius Cornelius CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla.
After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected consul in 87 BC
Breaking the oath he had sworn to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied himself with Marius. They raised an army of Italians, and took possession of the city.
Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius died.
L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinnaís colleague, and, on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo.
In 84, however, Cinna, who was still consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny.
His daughter Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. Cornelius CINNA, praetor in 44 BC, nevertheless sided with the murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action. Cicero Plutarch on Cicero: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html Plutarch -- Demosthenes v. Cicero: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_cicero.html About.com on Cicero: http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/cicero/ and
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/worksofcicero/ "Perseus " on Cicero (scroll past the "Atlas" section that lists mostly US locations named after Cicero: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?lang=en&full=0&alts=1&group=typecat&lookup=cicero U Texas Cicero site: http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/Cic.html. "In the absence of Pompey" (MacKay): http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/CLASS_366/Cicero.html tkw Cicero page: http://www.mmdtkw.org/VCicero.html Crassus Plutarch on Crassus: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/crassus.html Plutarch -- Crassus v. Nicias: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/crasus_n.html Plutarch -- Crassus fights Spartacus: http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plutarch_crassus_spartacus.htm Last decade of the Republic (MacKay): http://www.ualberta.ca/~csmackay/CLASS_366/50s.1.html Death of Crassus at Carrhae: http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/prm/blpersianmiragec.htm Pompey Plutarch on Pompey: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pompey.html Plutarch -- Pompey v. Agesilaus: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_a_comp.html tkw Page: http://www.mmdtkw.org/VPompeyMagnus.html Lucan's Pharsalia -- Civil War between Caesar and Pompey: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Pharsalia/ Theatrum Pompei Project: http://www.theaterofpompey.com/auditorium/theatertoday.html About.com on Pompey: http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/pompey/ About.com on First Triumvirate (Crassus, Pompey, J.Caesar): http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_firsttrium.htm Marc Antony: Plutarch on Antony: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html Plutarch -- Antony v. Demetrius: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_antony.html Marcus Antonius (Suzanne Cross): http://heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/antony/ (The final quote is the Second Witch to Banquo in MacBeth) Shakespeare on Antony and Cleopatra: http://www.allshakespeare.com/plays/aandc/ Lepidus (Aemilius Lepidus): http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=165&Ename=Lepidus


Tacitus on Lepidus:

http://www.romansonline.com/link.asp?IntID=165&Type=ANN&Auth=%27Annales+by+Tacitus%27 Suetonius on Lepidus: http://www.romansonline.com/link.asp?IntID=165&Type=STN&Auth=%27+5+out+of+Twelf+Caesars+by+Suetonius%27 Julius Caesar http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/766_Julius_Caesar-all.html
Livius.org on Caesar's life: http://www.livius.org/caa-can/caesar/caesar01.html Plutarch on J. Caesar: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/caesar.html J Caesar's own account of the Civil Wars: http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/civil.1.1.html Lucan's Pharsalia (The Civil War): http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Pharsalia/ Suetonius Life of Caesar: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html G. B. Shaw on Julius: http://www.4literature.net/George_Bernard_Shaw/Caesar_and_Cleopatra/ Shakespeare on Julius: http://www.allshakespeare.com/plays/jc/ Perseus on Shakespeare on Julius: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/JC/JC.includes.html Brutus: Plutarch on Marcus Brutus: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/m_brutus.html Plutarch -- Brutus v. Dion: http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_brutus.html Plutarch on the Assassination of J. Caesar: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/plutarch-caesar.html tkw page: http://www.mmdtkw.org/VBrutus.html Cassius Plutarch on the Assassination of J. Caesar: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/plutarch-caesar.html tkw page: http://www.mmdtkw.org/VCassius.html Cassius Timeline -- Public life: http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_cassius.htm

Archeological remains: The intense political rivalries of the times, among financiers and among Generals who had made new fortunes by stripping conquered territories, led to "competitive building". Pretenders to power tried to impress the population and each other by constructing grand new public buildings -- huge architectural billboards on which their names and the names of their families could be displayed. The Annals are loaded with references to new sacred buildings and with projects to rebuild existing temples. Most of that work, however, disappeared when Augustus and later Emperors made even grander improvements. Some secular buildings built or started during this period faired better and lasted for centuries. Major portions of the most long-lived, the Basilica Aemilia, lasted until the Renaissance, but then they were mined out as Popes gave Roman stone as building and sculpture materials to their own architects and artists. We'll look at five examples: the Theater of Pompey, the Basilicas Aemelia and Julia, and the Curia Julia, and the Forum of Julius Caesar. Theater of Pompey (started 61, dedicated 55 BC) First permanent stone theater in Rome The second-largest theater ever built
Only the Theater of Marcellus, built later by Augustus was larger.
Seating capacity of Pompey's theater was about 11,000 with room for perhaps another 2,000 standees (Th. Marcellus, about 20 percent
more.) Livy's estimate of 40,000 seats in the Pompey theater is vastly inflated. The outside diameter of the caveawas over 500 feet
The stage of Pompey's theater was 300 feet wide
Frons scaenae (the architectural stage backdrop) was at least 200 feet high Leisure complex attached -- the Porticus Pompeii ca 480x600 feet, directly behind the frons scaenae
porticoes, large and small lavatories, pavilions, refreshment stands
Curia Pompeii at the far end was where Caesar was assassinated Temple of Venus (and perhaps other temples) at the top of the Cavea
Four temples (now Area Sacra Piazza Argentina) restored at opposite end of the Porticus Pompeii Refs: http://www.theaterofpompey.com/
http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/ach_allc2001/papers/beacham/
http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/Theatrum_Pompei.html
http://www.ristorantidiroma.com/grotteteatropompeo.htm restaurant incorporating part of substructure) Basilica Aemilia Smaller Basilica raised by M. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior in 179 BC Redecorated by another M. Aemilius Le in 78 BC. Completely rebuilt in 55 BC by L. Aemilius Paullus, (brother of Triumvir)
and thereafter known in ancient times usually as Basilica Paulli, but now usually again called Aemelia. Money for 55 BC rebuild provided by Caesar from Gallic War loot.
Rebuilt after 14 BC fire and again in 22 AD in the name of the Aemelii Money provided by Augustus and friends Both plan and extent of the Basilica remained constant from 55 BC
Destroyed by Alaric and Visigoths, but rebuilt shortly thereafter
Excavated in late 19th century
Pillars standing in the basilica now are from elsewhere
Reconstruction drawing is at: http://kylemartin.ca/Forum/homeforum.html
Refs: http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Basilica.html Smith Dictionary -- "Basilica"
http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/basilicae.html Platner Topo Dictionary on "Basilicae" -- with links to all the basilica entries
http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/Basilica_Aemilia.html Platner Topo Dictionary on Basilica Aemilia
http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/157_Basilica_Aemilia.html Seindal on Aemilia
http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/I/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Forum_Romanum/.Texts/Huelsen*/2/21.html Hulsen (best, but Italian only -- good illustrations)
http://kylemartin.ca/Forum/homeforum.html


Basilica Julia

From http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/165_Basilica_Julia.html
History:  
Built 54-48 BC by Caesar as part of his reorganization of the Forum
Replaced Basilica Sempronia and Taberne Veteres ("old shops") between Temple of Saturn and Temple of Castor and Pollux --
South side of main Forum square Unfinished (not completely decorated) at Caesar's death
Destroyed by fire in 9 BC -- reconstructed by Augustus and rededicated in 2 BC Fire damage again in 283 AD -- restored a few years later
Destroyed in Alaric's sack of Rome in 410 AD Description: Outer dimensions: 101 x 49 meters
Central nave: 82 x 18 meters Four lateral aisles (two per side): two storeys high, vaulted ceilings,
arches decorated by semi-columns Central nave: three storeys high, clerestory windows
Shops on the Velabrum side -- behind the Basilica
(see http://kylemartin.ca/Forum/homeforum.html for a reconstruction picture) What you can see now: Basic floor plan remains
Brick walls, partially reconstructed, on end toward Temple of Saturn
Some statue bases (no statues)
Four podium steps, on which graffiti and graffiti game boards
Brick column bases are all 19th century reconstructions
Low fence prevents entry to the floor area
Best view is from the reconstructed ramp going up to the Capitoline Hill or from the Tabularium Refs: http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/I/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Forum_Romanum/.Texts/Huelsen*/2/1.html Hulsen (Italian Only)
http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/165_Basilica_Julia.html
http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/Basilica_Julia.html
http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Centumviri.html Centumviri Court in the Basilica Julia
http://www2.siba.fi/~kkoskim//rooma/pages/FBIULIA.HTM
http://kylemartin.ca/Forum/homeforum.html


Curia Julia

History: Built slightly off site and off axis of the earlier Curia Hostilia (which dated to mid-500s BC)
Sulla rebuilt and enlarged the Hostilia in 80 BC -- called it Curia Cornelia
Hostilia (Cornelia) burned in 52 BC by mob protesting murder of Clodius
Faustus, son of Sulla, immediately started to rebuild and enlarged it, but Julius Caesar took the project over in 44 BC
Project stood uncompleted during civil wars after Caesar's death
Augustus finally completed and dedicated it in 29 BC Chalcidicum porch in front added at the same time
Rebuilt by Domitian in 80s AD after Nero's fire of 64 AD
Destroyed by fire again in 283 AD and built shortly thereafter by Diocletian -- so what we see now is Diocletian's
Converted into S. Adriano Church in the 7th century
Desacralized and restored in 1930's Description Exterior -- Brick, originally covered with marble (bottom half) and stucco painted to look like marble (upper half) Front porch is missing (nobody seems to know when the
stairs were built, but they look modern--perhaps 1930's)
Front doors in bronze are copies of Diocletian's -- originals are on the front of St. John Lateran Interior -- Few Byzantine wall painting from S. Adriano period Marble floor is from time of Diocletion.
Steps on sides are where senators stood. (Sitting was a sign of "Greek" weakness.) Podium opposite front door is where presiding officer sat.
Two "back doors" opening toward the Forum of J. Caesar were at the sides of the podium Original porphyry "Winged Victory" is missing -- present Porphyry statue was found nearby. Internal marble removed in 1562 by Pirro Ligorio on orders of Pope Pius IV: 150 marble slabs and 29 of porphyry. What's a chalcidicum? Any covered area where notices could be posted or read out. Senate doors were required by law to be open when the
senate met .
Tribune of the people not allowed in, but stood outside
the doors. Tribune would announce the proceedings from the Senate Chalcidicum. Some sources equate the Atrium Minervae with the Senate Chalcidicum -- Atrium Minervae was to the left side as you faced the front doors from the outside and was a
porticus between the Curia and the "curial secretariate"
where the clerks and scribes recorded the proceedings
(and where semi-legal secret caucuses -- meetings of
"committees of the whole" -- were sometimes held). It's possible that the Atrium Minervae replaced the front porch in the chalcidicum function.
Any public structure might have a chalcidicum, and the location within a structure might change -- Chalcidicum appears therefore to be a functional designator. The location of the Senate Chalcidicum is further complicated by the apparent location of the chalcidicum for the forum of Julius Caesar immediately behind the Curia. There is still an active chalcidicum on the Capitoline hill where public notices of births, deaths, bans of marriage, etc.,
are posted. [The Plutei of Trajan is displayed inside the Curia, bit it has nothing to do with the Curia. A decorative rail that once stood around some forum monument, showing Trajan(?) holding court in the forum. Ref: http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/335_Plutei_of_Trajan.html] Refs: http://www.ku.ed u/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/Curia_Julia.html

http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/I/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Forum_Romanum/.Texts/Huelsen*/2/19.html (Italian only)

http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Curia.html
http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/180_Curia_Julia.html

http://kylemartin.ca/Forum/homeforum.html

http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/335_Plutei_of_Trajan.html


Forum of Julius Caesar -- the first of the "Fori Imperiali"

No indication that the "Fori Imperiali" -- Imperial Forums -- were known as such until much later. Neither Caesar, nor Augustus, who built the next extension onto the Forum, ever styled themselves as emperors. This area was officially the Forum Iulium, honoring the whole Julian Gens, but it was appears regularly in ancient sources as Forum Caesaris. Caesar had already embarked on a vast reconstruction of the existing Republican Forum -- see above -- and Augustus, after him, would do even more. Caesar had looted Gaul and had a vast fortune with which to build all over town -- he had a plan for the Saepta (pen) -- the voting place in the Campus Martius, which Augustus Carried out. History of "Caesar's Forum" Plan to expand the Republican Forum conceived as early as 54 BC -- using money from Caesar's victories in Gaul, Cicero and Oppius start to buy land for Caesar. Land clearance and some construction may have started in 51 BC
After winning the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC) Caesar vowed a temple to Venus Genetrix
(That is, Venus as the mother/founder of the Julian gens. Venus was the mythical mother of Aeneas, who was the father of Iulis, first king of Alba Longa and ancestor of Remus and Romulus, the later of whom, according to the gens Julius was the Great-Granddaddy of all Julians. It's all in Vergil's Aeneid, written by Vergil for Augustus.)

(Lucan's poem, the Pharsalia, written a century after the battle, extols Pompey as the defender of republican ideals and decries Caesar as the destroyer of the Republic. Aside from that spin, it has many apparently accurate details of the campaigns and battles and ultimate end of Pompey.)

 What became known as Caesar's forum was actually the Temple of Venus Genetrix and its precinct. The Temple and incomplete ancillary structures were inaugurated on 26 September, 46 BC, the last day of Caesar's "Triumph" -- for all his wars, not for Pharsalus. (There were four triumphal processions on four successive days -- Appian's description is at http://www.livius.org/caa-can/caesar/caesar_t12.html.) It's clear that Caesar saw the new temple and precinct as extensions of the Forum -- Curia Julia was planned with two doors that opened into the portico surrounding the Temple precinct. The complex was seriously damaged by fire in 80 AD.
Rebuilt by Trajan in 113 AD (it stood between the Republican Forum and his own huge forum to the north.) More fire damage in 283 AD. Most reconstruction work by Diocletian. Description (Reconstruction drawing at http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/venusgenetrix.jpg ):
Rectangular precinct 115 x 30 meters, surrounded by a colonnade and wall
Long axis aligned with back of the Curia Julia -- north-west to south- east. (Drawing of Imperial Fora w/link to model picture at: http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/imperialfora.html) Temple faced Southeast. This set the axes for all the later Imperial structures on the
north side of the Republican Forum 16th century excavations already revealed the peperino and travertine temple foundations, fragments of architecture and decorations -- Palladio's Four Books on Architecture included a plan and reconstruction (misidentified as a "Temple of Neptune" because dolphins were included in the decorations). Temple was "peripteral" (pillars on all sides, single row) with smaller than "normal" spacing between pillars. In the center of the forum was an equestrian statue of Caesar in gold-plated bronze, and the horse he was riding was recognizable as Bucephalos, the horse of Alexander the Great. ("Bucephalos" meant "ox-head" a reference to the very broad head of Alexander's favorite mount. Any cultured Roman would recognize the horse and know its meaning.) (Caesar was also said once to have received the Senate while he was seated in the center of the Temple -- a clear departure from the Republican norm.) There was a fountain between the Temple and the equestrianStatue.
Appian said that Caesar put a statue of Cleopatra next to the statue of Venus in the temple cella -- something that would scandalize conservative Romans What's visible? Three pillars with the temple architrave have been restored and re- erected, along with many pillars on the southwest side of the surrounding portico. Intricately carved architectural elements are placed to be visible from viewing areas on sidewalks above the Forum. Walls along the southwest side of the forum are still largely intact and the outside of those walls held shops. There are now displays of architectural elements inside the shops, but they are often not available to the public. One section of the wall is broken by a semi-circular public lavatory -- a 50-seater and said to be the largest in the ancient world -- dating from the time of Trajan (Ruled 98 - 117 AD). The core of the Temple podium and some of its peperino and travertine shell is still clearly visible at the end of the Forum The temple and forum is not always open to visitors, but there are walkways above the excavation, at modern street level of the Via dei Fori Imperiali, from which very good views are available. Refs: Links listed above, and
http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/.Texts/PLATOP*/Forum_Julium.html
http://www2.siba.fi/~kkoskim/rooma/pages/FCAESAR.HTM (Very good recent photos)